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 Scientific Articles

This section contains of peer-reviewed articles in scientific journals or empirical or clinical/medical literature about meditation challenges, unusual effects, adverse effects, risks, and contraindications. Present count (as of 1.24.23) = 110

2020s (14)

  1. Charan, D., Sharma, P., Kachhawaha, G., Kaur, G., and Gupta, S. (2023) Meditation Practices and the Onset of Psychosis: A Case Series and Analysis of Possible Risk Factors. Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine, 45, 80–84. DOI: 10.1177/02537176211059457

  2. Taylor, G.B., Vasquez, T.S., Kastrinos, A. et al. The Adverse Effects of Meditation-Interventions and Mind–Body Practices: a Systematic Review. Mindfulness 13, 1839–1856 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-022-01915-6

  3. Goud,S.S. (2022) Meditation: A Double-Edged Sword—A Case Report of Psychosis Associated with Excessive Unguided Meditation. Case Reports in Psychiatry. | https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/2661824

  4. Pauly, L., Bergmann, N., Hahne, I., Pux, S., Hahn, E., Ta, T., . . . Böge, K. (2022). Prevalence, predictors and types of unpleasant and adverse effects of meditation in regular meditators: International cross-sectional study. BJPsych Open, 8(1), E11. doi:10.1192/bjo.2021.1066

  5. Cooper, D., Lindahl, J.R., Palitsky, R., Britton, W.B. (2021) “Like a Vibration Cascading through the Body”: Energy-Like Somatic Experiences Reported by Western Buddhists. Religions, 12: 1042. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel12121042

  6. Hanssen I, Scheepbouwer V, Huijbers M, Regeer E, Lochmann van Bennekom M, Kupka R, et al. (2021) Adverse or therapeutic? A mixed-methods study investigating adverse effects of Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy in bipolar disorder. PLoS ONE 16(11): e0259167. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0259167

  7. Aizik-Reebs, A., Shoham, A., Bernstein, A. (2021). First, do no harm: An intensive experience sampling study of adverse effects to mindfulness training, Behaviour Research and Therapy, 145, 103941. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2021.103941

  8. Britton, W.B., Lindahl., J.R., Cooper, D.J., Canby, N., Palitsky, R. (2021). Defining and measuring meditation-related adverse effects in mindfulness-based interventions. Clinical Psychological Science. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167702621996340,  

  9. Goldberg, S.B., Lam, S.U., Britton, W.B., Davidson, R.J. (2021) Prevalence of meditation-related adverse effects in a population-based sample in the United States. Psychotherapy Research. https://doi.org/10.1080/10503307.2021.1933646

  10. Lambert, D., van den Berg, N.H. & Mendrek, A. Adverse effects of meditation: A review of observational, experimental and case studies. Curr Psychol (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-021-01503-2

  11. Baer, R., Crane, C., Montero-Marin, J. et al. Frequency of Self-reported Unpleasant Events and Harm in a Mindfulness-Based Program in Two General Population Samples. Mindfulness 12, 763–774 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-020-01547-8

  12. Stjernswärd, S., & Hansson, L. (2020). A qualitative study of caregivers’ experiences, motivation and challenges using a web-based mindfulness

    intervention. Community Mental Health Journal, 56(3), 416–425.

  13. Walsh, M.M. and Armold, K.A. (2020) The bright and dark sides of employee mindfulness: Leadership style and employee well‐being. Stress & Health.1-12. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.2926

  14. Farias, M., M. Farias, E. Maraldi, E., Wallenkampf, K.C., Lucchetti, G. (2020)Adverse events in meditation practices and meditation-based therapies: a systematic review. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 142, 74–393. https://doi.org/10.1111/acps.13225

2010s (56)

  1. Sharma, P., Mahapatra, A., & Gupta, R. (2019)Meditation-induced psychosis: a narrative review and individual patient data analysis . Irish Journal of Psychological Medicine.  https://doi.org/10.1017/ipm.2019.47

  2. Pearson, M. (2019). Counselling intern self-awareness and readiness for practice: Reports from a mindfulness challenge. Asia Pacific Journal of Counselling and Psychotherapy, 11(1), 23–33.

  3. Schindler, P., Pfattheicher, S., & Reinhard,M. (2019). Potential negative consequences of mindfulness in the moral domain. European Journal of Social Psychology, 49(5), 1055–1069. https://doi.org/ 10.1002/ejsp.2570.

  4. Zhu, J., Wekerle, C., Lanius, R. A., & Frewen, P. A. (2019). Trauma- and Stressor-Related History and Symptoms Predict Distress Experienced during a Brief Mindfulness Meditation Sitting: Moving toward Trauma-Informed Care in Mindfulness-Based Therapy. Mindfulness, 10, 1985-1996. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-019-01173-z 

  5. Lindahl, J. R., W.B., B., Cooper, D. J., & Kirmayer, L. (2019). Challenging and Adverse Meditation Experiences: Toward a Person-Centered Approach In M. L. Miguel Farias, and David Brazier (Ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Meditation. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. http://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198808640.013.51

  6. Schlosser, M., Sparby, T., Voros, S., Jones, R., & Marchant, N. L. (2019). Unpleasant meditation-related experiences in regular meditators: Prevalence, predictors, and conceptual considerations. PLoS One, 14(5), e0216643. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0216643

  7. Lindahl, J. R., & Britton, W. B. (2019). “I Have This Feeling of Not Really Being Here”: Buddhist Meditation and Changes in Sense of Self. Journal of Consciousness Studies, 26(7-8), 157-183. Open Access Link

  8. Baer, R., Crane, C., Miller, E., & Kuyken, W. (2019). Doing no harm in mindfulness-based programs: Conceptual issues and empirical findings. Clin Psychol Rev, 71, 101-114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2019.01.00

  9. Britton, W. B. (2019). Can mindfulness be too much of a good thing? The value of a middle way. Curr Opin Psychol, 28, 159-165. doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2018.12.011

  10. Anderson, T., Suresh, M., & Farb, N. A. (2019). Meditation Benefits and Drawbacks: Empirical Codebook and Implications for Teaching. Journal of Cognitive Enhancement, Online January 14 2019. doi :https://doi.org/10.1007/s41465-018-00119-y

  11. Meeks, T., Rice, P., & Harper. (2019). Negative mood reduces negative false memories after a brief mindfulness exercise. Mindfulness, 10(12), 2507–2521. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-019-01223-6.

  12. Wielgosz, J., Goldberg, S. B., Kral, T. R. A., Dunne, J. D., & Davidson, R. J. (2019). Mindfulness Meditation and Psychopathology. Annu Rev Clin Psychol, 15, 285-316. doi: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-021815-093423

  13. Wong, S., Chan, J., Zhang, D., Lee, E., & Tsoi, K. (2018). The Safety of Mindfulness-Based Interventions: a Systematic Review of Randomized Controlled Trials. Mindfulness. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-018-0897-0 

  14. Van Dam, N. T., van Vugt, M. K., Vago, D. R., Schmalzl, L., Saron, C. D., Olendzki, A., . . . Meyer, D. E. (2018). Mind the Hype: A Critical Evaluation and Prescriptive Agenda for Research on Mindfulness and Meditation. Perspect Psychol Sci, 13(1), 36-61. doi: https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691617709589

  15. Ratnayake, S., & Merry, D. (2018). Forgetting ourselves: epistemic costs and ethical concerns in mindfulness exercises. J Med Ethics. doi: https://doi.org/10.1136/medethics-2017-104201

  16. Kaselionyte, J.  and Gumley (2018). “It’s like a charge – either fuses you or burns you out”: an interpretative phenomenological analysis of extreme mental states in meditation context. Mental Health, Religion & Culture, 20, 986-1001. https://doi.org/10.1080/13674676.2017.1422237

  17. Kral, T. R. A., Schuyler, B. S., Mumford, J. A., Rosenkranz, M. A., Lutz, A., & Davidson, R. J. (2018). Impact of short- and long-term mindfulness meditation training on amygdala reactivity to emotional stimuli. Neuroimage, 181, 301-313. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2018.07.013

  18. Hjeltnes, A., Moltu, C., Schanche, E., Jansen, Y., & Binder, P. E. (2018). Both sides of the story: Exploring how improved and less-improved participants experience mindfulness-based stress reduction for social anxiety disorder. Psychother Res, 28(1), 106-122. doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/10503307.2016.1169330 

  19. Anderson, T., & Farb, N. A. S. (2018). Personalising Practice Using Preferences for Meditation Anchor Modality. Front Psychol, 9, 2521. doi: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02521

  20. Qi, H., Zhang, H. H., Hanceroglu, L., Caggianiello, J., & Roberts, K. P. (2018). The influence ofmindfulness on young adolescents’ eyewitness memory and suggestibility. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 32(6), 823–829. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.3452.

  21. Tangney, J. P., Dobbins, A. E., Stuewig, J. B., & Schrader, S. W. (2017). Is There a Dark Side to Mindfulness? Relation of Mindfulness to Criminogenic Cognitions. Pers Soc Psychol Bull, 43(10), 1415-1426. doi: https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167217717243

  22. Morone, N. E., Moore, C. G., & Greco, C. M. (2017). Characteristics of Adults Who Used Mindfulness Meditation: United States, 2012. J Altern Complement Med, 23(7), 545-550. doi: https://doi.org/10.1089/acm.2016.0099

  23. Cebolla, A., Demarzo, M., Martins, P., Soler, J., & Garcia-Campayo, J. (2017). Unwanted effects: Is there a negative side of meditation? A multicentre survey. PLoS One, 12(9), e0183137. doi: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0183137

  24. Creswell, J. D. (2017). Mindfulness Interventions. Annu Rev Psychol, 68, 491-516. doi: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-042716-051139

  25. Lindahl, J. R., Fisher, N. E., Cooper, D. J., Rosen, R. K., & Britton, W. B. (2017). The varieties of contemplative experience: A mixed-methods study of meditation-related challenges in Western Buddhists. PLoS One, 12(5), e0176239. doi: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0176239

  26. Van Gordon, W., Shonin, E., & Garcia-Campayo, J. (2017). Are there adverse effects associated with mindfulness? Aust N Z J Psychiatry, 51(10), 977-979. doi: https://doi.org/10.1177/0004867417716309

  27. Reynolds, L., Bissett, I., Porter, D., & Consedine, N. (2017). A brief mindfulness intervention is associated with negative outcomes in a randomised controlled trial among chemotherapy patients. Mindfulness, 8(5), 1291–1303. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-017-0705-2

  28. Coronado-Montoya, S., Levis, A. W., Kwakkenbos, L., Steele, R. J., Turner, E. H., & Thombs, B. D. (2016). Reporting of Positive Results in Randomized Controlled Trials of Mindfulness-Based Mental Health Interventions. PLoS One, 11(4), e0153220. doi: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0153220 

  29. Holzel, B. K., Brunsch, V., Gard, T., Greve, D. N., Koch, K., Sorg, C., . . . Milad, M. R. (2016). Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction, Fear Conditioning, and The Uncinate Fasciculus: A Pilot Study. Front Behav Neurosci, 10, 124. doi: https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2016.00124

  30. Brake, C. A., Sauer-Zavala, S., Boswell, J. F., Gallagher, M. W., Farchione, T. J., & Barlow, D. H. (2016). Mindfulness-Based Exposure Strategies as a Transdiagnostic Mechanism of Change: An Exploratory Alternating Treatment Design. Behav Ther, 47(2), 225-238. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2015.10.008

  31. Johnson, C., Burke, C., Brinkman, S., & Wade, T. (2016). Effectiveness of a school-based mindfulness program for transdiagnostic prevention in young adolescents. Behav Res Ther, 81, 1-11. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2016.03.002 

  32. Sharma, P., Singh, S., Gnanavel, S., & Kumar, N. (2016). Meditation–a two edged sword for psychosis: A case report. Irish Journal of Psychological Medicine, 33(4), 247–249.

  33. Rosenstreich, E. (2015). Mindfulness and False-Memories: The Impact of Mindfulness Practice on the DRM Paradigm. J Psychol, 1-17. doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.2015.1004298

  34. Britton, W. B. (2015). Scientific literacy as a foundational competency for teachers of mindfulness-based interventions. In D. McCown, D. Reibel, & M. Micozzi (Eds.), Resources for Teaching Mindfulness: A Cross-Cultural and International Handbook. New York: Springer. LINK

  35. Antonova, E., Chadwick, P., & Kumari, V. (2015). More meditation, less habituation? The effect of mindfulness practice on the acoustic startle reflex. PLoS One, 10(5), e0123512. doi: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0123512

  36. Wilson, B.M.,Mickes, L., Stolarz-Fantino, S., Evrard, M., & Fantino, E. (2015). Increased false-memory susceptibility after mindfulness meditation. Psychological Science, 26(10), 1567–1573. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797615593705.

  37. Ataria, Y., Dor-Ziderman, Y., & Berkovich-Ohana, A. (2015). How does it feel to lack a sense of boundaries? A case study of a long-term mindfulness meditator. Conscious Cogn, 37, 133-147. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2015.09.002

  38. Banks, K., Newman, E., & Saleem, J. (2015). An Overview of the Research on Mindfulness-Based Interventions for Treating Symptoms of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: A Systematic Review. J Clin Psychol, 71(10), 935-963. doi: https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.22200

  39. Britton, W. B., Lindahl, J. R., Cahn, B. R., Davis, J. H., & Goldman, R. E. (2014). Awakening is not a metaphor: the effects of Buddhist meditation practices on basic wakefulness. Ann N Y Acad Sci, 1307, 64-81. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/nyas.12279

  40. Strauss, C., Cavanagh, K., Oliver, A., & Pettman, D. (2014). Mindfulness-based interventions for people diagnosed with a current episode of an anxiety or depressive disorder: a meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. PLoS One, 9(4), e96110. doi: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0096110

  41. Shonin, E., Van Gordon, W., & Griffiths, M. (2014). Are there risks associated with using mindfulness in the treatment of psychopathology? Clinical Practice ,, 11, 389-392. LINK

  42. Galante, J., Galante, I., Bekkers, M. J., & Gallacher, J. (2014). Effect of kindness-based meditation on health and well-being: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Consult Clin Psychol, 82(6), 1101-1114. doi: https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037249 

  43. Evans, D. R., Eisenlohr-Moul, T. A., Button, D. F., Baer, R. A., & Segerstrom, S. C. (2014). Self-Regulatory Deficits Associated with Unpracticed Mindfulness Strategies for Coping with Acute Pain. J Appl Soc Psychol, 44(1), 23-30. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/jasp.12196

  44. Lomas, T., Cartwright, T., Edginton, T., & Ridge, D. (2014). A qualitative summary of experiential challenges associated with meditation practice. Mindfulness, 1-13. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-014-0329-8

  45. Lindahl, J. R., Kaplan, C., Winget, E., & Britton, W. B. (2014). A Phenomenology of Meditation-Induced Light Experiences: Traditional Buddhist and Neurobiological Perspectives. Frontiers in Psychology, 4(973), 1-16. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00973

  46. Creswell, J. D., Pacilio, L. E., Lindsay, E. K., & Brown, K. W. (2014). Brief mindfulness meditation training alters psychological and neuroendocrine responses to social evaluative stress. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 44, 1-12. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2014.02.007

  47. Dor-Ziderman, Y., Berkovich-Ohana, A., Glicksohn, J., & Goldstein, A. (2013). Mindfulness-induced selflessness: a MEG neurophenomenological study. Front Hum Neurosci, 7, 582. doi: https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2013.00582

  48. Berkovich-Ohana, A., Dor-Ziderman, Y., Glicksohn, J., & Goldstein, A. (2013). Alterations in the sense of time, space, and body in the mindfulness-trained brain: a neurophenomenologically-guided MEG study. Front Psychol, 4, 912. doi: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00912

  49. Wisner, B. (2013). Less stress, less drama, and experiencing monkey mind: Benefits and challenges of a school-basedmeditation program for adolescents. School Social Work Journal, 38(1), 49–63.

  50. Ferrarelli, F., Smith, R., Dentico, D., Riedner, B. A., Zennig, C., Benca, R. M., . . . Tononi, G. (2013). Experienced mindfulness meditators exhibit higher parietal-occipital EEG gamma activity during NREM sleep. PLoS One, 8(8), e73417. doi: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0073417 

  51. Dobkin, P., Irving, J., & Amar, S. (2012). For Whom May Participation in a Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction Program be Contraindicated? Mindfulness, 3, 44-50. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-011-0079-9

  52. Taylor, V. A., Grant, J., Daneault, V., Scavone, G., Breton, E., Roffe-Vidal, S., . . . Beauregard, M. (2011). Impact of mindfulness on the neural responses to emotional pictures in experienced and beginner meditators. Neuroimage, 57(4), 1524-1533.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.06.001

  53. Kerr, C. E., Josyula, K., & Littenberg, R. (2011). Developing an observing attitude: An analysis of meditation diaries in an MBSR clinical trial. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 18(1), 80–93. https://doi.org/10.1002/cpp.700.

  54. Nakaya, M., & Ohmori, K. (2010). Psychosis induced by spiritual practice and resolution of pre-morbid inner conflicts. German Journal of Psychiatry, 13, 161–163.

  55. Jaseja, H. (2010). Potential role of self-induced EEG fast oscillations in predisposition to seizures in meditators. Epilepsy & Behavior, 17, 124-125.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yebeh.2009.10.022 

  56. Britton, W. B., Haynes, P. L., Fridel, K. W., & Bootzin, R. R. (2010). Polysomnographic and subjective profiles of sleep continuity before and after mindfulness-based cognitive therapy in partially remitted depression. Psychosom Med, 72(6), 539-548. doi: https://doi.org/10.1097/PSY.0b013e3181dc1bad

2000s (10)

1.     Lustyk, M., Chawla, N., Nolan, R., & Marlatt, G. (2009). Mindfulness Meditation Research: Issues of participant screening, safety procedures, and researcher training. Advances in Mind-Body Medicine, 24(1), 20-30.  LINK

2.      Kuijpers, H., van der Heijden, F., Tuinier, S., & Verhoeven, W. (2007). Meditation-induced psychosis. Psychopathology, 40, 461-464.  https://doi.org/10.1159/000108125

3.     Lansky, E. (2006). Transcendental meditation: A double-edged sword in epilepsy? Epilepsy & Behavior, 9, 394-400.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yebeh.2006.04.019

4.     Waelde, L. (2004). Dissociation and meditation. Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 5(2), 147-162. https://doi.org/10.1300/J229v05n02_08

5.     Ma, S. H., & Teasdale, J. D. (2004). Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy for depression: replication and exploration of differential relapse prevention effects. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 72(1), 31-40. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.72.1.31

6.     Sethi, S. (2003). Relationship of meditation and psychosis: case studies. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 37(3), 382. LINK

7.     Yorston, G. (2001). Mania precipitated by meditation: a case report and literature review. Mental Health, Religion & Culture, 4, 209-214. https://doi.org/10.1080/713685624

8.     Shan, H. (2000). Culture-bound psychiatric disorders associated with Qigong practice in China. Hong Kong Journal of Psychiatry, 10, 12-14. LINK

9.     APA. (2000). Qigong Psychotic Reaction; Appendix I: Culture-Bound Syndromes. In Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th Edition, Text Revision (DSM-IV-TR). Arlington,VA: American Psychiatric Association.

10.  Perez-de-Albeniz, A., & Holmes, J. (2000). Meditation: Concepts, effects and uses in therapy. International Journal of Psychotherapy, 5, 49-58. https://doi.org/10.1080/13569080050020263

1990s (11)

1.     Chan-Ob, T., & Boonyanaruthee, V. (1999). Meditation in association with psychosis. Journal of the Medical Association of Thailand, 82(9), 925-930. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10561951

2.     VanderKooi, L. (1997). Buddhist teachers’ experience with extreme mental states in Western meditators. Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 29, 31-46. Buddhist teachers’ experience with extreme mental states in Western meditators. LINK  

3.     Turner, R. P., Lukoff, D., Barnhouse, R. T., & Lu, F. G. (1995). Religious or spiritual problem. A culturally sensitive diagnostic category in the DSM-IV. J Nerv Ment Dis, 183(7), 435-444. https://doi.org/10.1097/00005053-199507000-00003 

4.     Lukoff, D., Lu, F. G., & Turner, R. (1995). Cultural considerations in the assessment and treatment of religious and spiritual problems. Psychiatr Clin North Am, 18(3), 467-485. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8545262

5.     APA. (1994). 300.6 Depersonalization Disorder. In Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th Edition (DSM IV) (4th Edition ed.). Washington DC: American Psychiatric Association. 

6.     Miller, J. (1993). The unveiling of traumatic memories and emotions through mindfulness and concentration meditation: clinical implications and three case reports. Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 25, 169-180. LINK

7. Persinger, M. A. (1993). Transcendental meditation and general meditation are associated with enhanced complex partial epileptic-like signs: Evidence for “cognitive” kindling? Perceptual and Motor Skills, 76, 80–82.

8. Persinger, M. A. (1992). Enhanced incidence of "the sensed presence" in people who have learned to meditate: Support for the right hemispheric intrusion hypothesis. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 75(3), 1308.

9.     Shapiro, D. H., Jr. (1992). Adverse effects of meditation: a preliminary investigation of long-term meditators. Int J Psychosom, 39(1-4), 62-67.   LINK

10.     Lukoff, D., Lu, F., & Turner, R. (1992). Toward a more culturally sensitive DSM-IV. Psychoreligious and psychospiritual problems. J Nerv Ment Dis, 180(11), 673-682. https://doi.org/10.1097/00005053-199211000-00001

11.     Castillo, R. (1990). Depersonalization and meditation. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging Section, 53, 158-168. https://doi.org/10.1080/00332747.1990.11024497

1980s (12)

1.     Craven, J. L. (1989). Meditation and psychotherapy. Can J Psychiatry, 34(7), 648-653. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F070674378903400705

2.     Adler, C., Craske, M., & Barlow, D. (1987). Relaxation-induced panic: When resting isn't peaceful. Integrative Psychiatry, 5, 94-112. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1988-30430-001 

3.     Cohen, A. S., Barlow, D. H., & Blanchard, E. B. (1985). Psychophysiology of relaxation-associated panic attacks. J Abnorm Psychol, 94(1), 96-101. https://doi.org/10.1037//0021-843x.94.1.96 

4.     Disayavanish, C., & Disayavanish, P. (1984). Meditation-induced psychosis (in Thai).  Journal of the Psychiatric Association of Thailand, 29, 1-12.

5.     Holmes, D. S. (1984). Meditation and somatic arousal reduction. A review of the experimental evidence. Am Psychol, 39(1), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1037//0003-066x.39.1.1

6.     Otis, L. (1984). Adverse effects of Transcendental Meditation. In D. H. Shapiro & R. Walsh (Eds.), Meditation: Classic and Contemporary Perspectives. New York: Aldine.

7.     Brown, D., Forte, M., & Dysart, M. (1984). Visual sensitivity and mindfulness meditation. Percept Mot Skills, 58(3), 775-784. doi: https://doi.org/10.2466/pms.1984.58.3.775

8.     Fenwick, P. (1983). Can we still recommend meditation? Br Med J (Clin Res Ed), 287(6403), 1401. https://dx.doi.org/10.1136%2Fbmj.288.6419.795-b

9.     Heide, F., & Borkovec, T. (1983). Relaxation-induced anxiety: paradoxical anxiety enhancement due to relaxation treatment. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 51(2), 171-182. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-006x.51.2.171

10.  Holmes, D. S., Solomon, S., Cappo, B. M., & Greenberg, J. L. (1983). Effect of Transcendental Meditation versus resting on physiological and subjective arousal. J Pers Soc Psychol, 44(6), 1245-1252. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.44.6.1245 

11.  Shapiro, D. H., Jr. (1982). Overview: clinical and physiological comparison of meditation with other self-control strategies. Am J Psychiatry, 139(3), 267-274. https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.139.3.267

12.  Epstein, M., & Lieff, J. (1981). Psychiatric complications of meditation practice. The Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 13(2), 137-147. LINK

1970s (7) 

1.    Walsh, R. (1977). Initial meditative experiences: Part I. Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 9, 151-192. LINK

2.    Walsh, R. (1978). Initial meditative experiences: Part II. Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 10, 1-28. LINK

3.     French, A., Schmid, A., & Ingalls, E. (1975). Trascendental meditation, altered reality testing, and behavioral change; a case report. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 161(1), 55-58. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1097/00005053-197507000-00007

4.     Kennedy, R. (1976). Self-induced depersonalization syndrome. American Journal of Psychiatry, 133(11), 1326-1328. https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.133.11.1326

5.     Lazarus, A. (1976). Psychiatric problems precipitated by transcendental meditation. Psychological Reports, 39, 601-602. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.2466/pr0.1976.39.2.601 

6.      Kornfield, J. (1979). Intensive insight meditation: a phenomenological study. Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 11(1), 41-56. LINK

7.     Walsh, R., & Roche, L. (1979). Precipitation of acute psychotic episodes by intensive meditation in individuals with a history of schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry, 136(8), 1085-1086. LINK

Humanities and Social Science Scholarship

This section contains scholarship on meditation-related challenges, unusual experiences, and adverse effects from historians and anthropologists of religious traditions. These sources are written by scholars of religious traditions who both represent and explain or interpret religious sources.

  • Greene, E.M. (2021) The Secrets of Buddhist Meditation: Visionary Meditation Texts from Early Medieval China. Honolulu HI: University of Hawaii Press. LINK.

  • Lindahl, J. R., Britton W.B., Cooper, D. J., & Kirmayer, L. (2019). Challenging and Adverse Meditation Experiences: Toward a Person-Centered Approach In M. L. Miguel Farias, and David Brazier (Ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Meditation. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. http://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198808640.013.51

  • Lindahl, J. R., & Britton, W. B. (2019). “I Have This Feeling of Not Really Being Here”: Buddhist Meditation and Changes in Sense of Self. Journal of Consciousness Studies, 26(7-8), 157-183. Open Access Link

  • Analayo, B. (2019). The Insight Knowledge of Fear and Adverse Effects of Mindfulness Practices. Mindfulness 10: 2172-2185. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-019-01198-4

  • Lutkajtis, A. (2019). The dark side of Dharma: Why have adverse effects of meditation been ignored in contemporary Western secular contexts? MA Thesis. University of Sydney.

  • Kaselionyte, J., & Gumley, A. (2018). “It’s like a charge—either fuses you or burns you out”: An interpretative phenomenological analysis of extreme mental states in meditation context. Mental Health, Religion, and Culture, doi:10.1080/13674676.2017.1422237.

  • Lindahl, J.R. (2017). Somatic Energies and Emotional Traumas: A Qualitative Study of Practice-Related Challenges Reported by Vajrayāna Buddhists. Religions 8(153). doi: 10.3390/rel8080153  Open Access Link

  • Pritchard, S. (2016). Mindfulness and Beyond: A Qualitative Study of Advanced Mahasi Meditators’ Experience. PhD Thesis. Fielding Graduate Univeristy.

  • Vieten, C., & Scammel, S. (2015). Spiritual and religious competencies in clinical practice: Guidelines for psychotherapists and mental health professionals. Oakland, CA: New Harbinger.

  •  Ataria, Y. (2015). Where do we end and where does the world begin? The case of insight meditation. Philosophical Psychology 28(8):1128-46.

  • Full, G., Walach, H., Trautwein, M. (2013). Meditation induced changes in perception: An interview study with expert meditators (sotapannas) in Burma. Mindfulness 4:55-63.

  • Chen, Z., Qi, W., Hood, R. W. Jr., & Watson, P. J. (2011). Qualitative and quantitative analysis of mysticism in Chinese Buddhist monks and nuns. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 50(4), 654–670.

  • Brett, C. (2002). Psychotic and mystical states of being: Connections and distinctions. Philosophy, Psychiatry & Psychology 9(4), 321–341.

  • Gyatso, J. (1999). Healing burns with fire: The facilitations of experience in Tibetan Buddhism. Journal of the American Academy of Religion 67(1):113-47.

  • Kornfield J. (1979) Intensive insight meditation: A phenomenological study. Journal of Transpersonal Psychology 11(1), 41–58.

 Primary Sources from Religious Traditions

This section features texts that discuss of meditation-related challenges, unusual experiences, and adverse effects from the perspective of religious traditions. These sources are written by adherents of religious traditions who contextualize meditation-related challenges in relation to the values, worldviews, and goals of their tradition.

Theravāda Buddhism

  • Buddhaghosa, B. (1991). The Path of Purification. Onalaska, WA: Buddhist Publication Society.

  • Sayadaw, M. (1965). The Progress of Insight: A Modern Pali Treatise on Buddhist Satipatthana Meditation. Kandy, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society.

  • Sayadaw, M. (2016). Manual of Insight. Somerville, MA: Wisdom Publications.

  • Namto, S. (1989). Insight Meditation: Practical Steps to Ultimate Truth. Fawnskin, CA: Vipassana Dhura Meditation Society.

  • Tate, A. (1993). The Autobiography of a Forest Monk. Chiang Mai: Wat Hin Mark Peng.

  • Kornfield, J. (2011). Bringing home the Dharma: Awakening right where you are. Boston: Shambhala Publications

  • Kornfield, J. (1993). A Path With Heart: A Guide Through the Perils and Promises of Spiritual Life. Bantam.

Zen Buddhism

  • Hua, H. (2003). The Shurangama Sutra with commentary, Vol. 8. Burlingame, CA: Buddhist Text Publication Society.

  • Hakuin. (2009). Idle talk on a night boat. In: Waddell N, editor. Hakuin's Precious Mirror Cave. Berkeley: Counterpoint.

  • Sogen, O. (2001). An Introduction to Zen training. (D. Hosokawa, Trans.) Boston: Tuttle Publishing.

  • Aitken, R. (1982) Taking the Path of Zen. San Francisco: North Point Press.

Tibetan Buddhism

  • Lingpa, D. (2015). Düdjom Lingpa’s Visions of the great perfection: Vol. 3: The vajra essence. B. A. Wallace (Trans.). Boston: Wisdom Publications.

  • Wallace, B.A. (2011). Stilling the Mind: Shamatha Teachings from Dudjom Lingpa's Vajra Essence. Boston: Wisdom Publications.

  • Preece, R. (2011). Preparing for tantra: Creating the psychological ground for practice. Ithaca, NY: Snow Lion Publications.